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Context and Importance of the FOIA Request

Donald Friedman’s FOIA request, filed in 2006, was a significant effort to compel the U.S. government to release documents concerning directed energy weapons and specific non-lethal technologies, primarily the microwave auditory effect (also known as the microwave hearing effect or Frey effect) and artificial telepathy.

• Context: Friedman’s request was based on the belief that the government had been involved in covert activities and potentially using these technologies against individuals. The resulting legal case involved multiple agencies, including the U.S. Secret Service, and was part of a larger, years-long effort to declassify information on these topics.
• Importance: This specific document, released by the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command (INSCOM), is important because it is a declassified technical assessment that directly confirms the military’s decades-long research, development, and theorizing about the practical, incapacitating applications of these electromagnetic (EM) bioeffects. The release provided tangible evidence that the phenomena (like “voices in the head” caused by microwave pulses) were not merely conjecture but were actively studied by the defense and intelligence community.

What We Learned About Unethical Experiments and Research

The document is an internal analysis of weapon potential, not a report on specific human experiments (which would typically be classified or withheld under different exemptions, like privacy or intelligence sources/methods). However, what we learn from this declassified research document about the government’s perspective is:

1. Confirmation of Mechanisms for Covert Incapacitation: The document provides detailed, technical confirmation that the military was researching non-lethal weapons based on two key bioeffects:
   • Microwave Hearing: This effect relies on the thermoelastic expansion of brain tissue from short microwave pulses, causing the sensation of buzzing, ticking, or even “words could be transmitted to be heard like the spoken word, except that it could only be heard within a person’s head.” The document notes this could be “psychologically devastating.”
   • Microwave Heating: Research into using RF energy to uniformly raise a person’s core body temperature to induce high fever to cause disorientation and incapacitation, with the lethal temperature boundary clearly stated.
2. Focus on Psychological and Behavioral Control: The intent described for these systems goes beyond simple incapacitation and includes elements of coercion:
   • Microwave Heating could be useful in “negotiations” or for “controlling crowds.”
   • Microwave Hearing could be used to provide a “disruptive condition” or a “private message transmission.”
3. Acknowledgment of Risks and Vulnerabilities: The study explicitly details human vulnerabilities:
   • For heating, individuals with compromised thermoregulatory mechanisms (including damage to the hypothalamus) would be susceptible at lower energy densities.
   • For neural disruption (epileptogenesis), the theory involves “uncontrollable” synchronization of brain neurons resulting in loss of voluntary control of the body.

In essence, while the document does not detail any unethical human experiments (like those revealed in historical programs like MKULTRA), it serves as a smoking gun for the intent and technical viability of developing weapons that can control and disrupt human physiological and cognitive functions from a distance. It confirms that the underlying physical and biological effects of claims often made by individuals—such as hearing voices or experiencing sudden illness caused by directed energy—were, in fact, subjects of U.S. military research.

Transcript of Response

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

UNITED STATES ARMY INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY COMMAND

FREEDOM OF INFORMATION/PRIVACY OFFICE

FORT GEORGE G. MEADE, MARYLAND 20755-5995

REPLY TO ATTENTION OF:

DEC 13 2006

Freedom of Information/

Privacy Office

Mr. Donald Friedman

Confidential Legal Correspondence

1125 Third Street

Napa, California 94559-3015

Dear Mr. Friedman:

References:

• a. Your Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request dated May 25, 2006, to the Department of the Army, Freedom of Information/Privacy Act Division (DA FOIA/PA DIV), for all documents pertaining to the microwave auditory effect, microwave hearing effect, Frey effect, artificial telepathy, and/or any device/weapon which uses and/or causes such effect; and any covert or undisclosed use of hypnosis. On September 5, 2006, the DA FOIA/PA DIV referred a copy of your request to this office. Your request was received on September 11, 2006.
• b. Our letter of September 13, 2006, informing you of the search for records at another element of our command and were unable to comply with the 20-day statutory time limit in processing your request.

As noted in our letter, the search has been completed with another element of this command and the record has been returned to this office for our review and direct response to you.

We have completed a mandatory declassification review in accordance with Executive Order (EO) 12958, as amended. As a result of this review, it has been determined that the Army information no longer warrants security classification protection and is releasable to you. A copy of the record is enclosed for your use.

Fees for processing your request are waived.

---

-2-

If you have any questions concerning this action, please feel free to contact this office at (301) 677-2308. Refer to case #614F-06.

Sincerely,

[Signature Line]

Freedom of Information/Privacy Office

Investigative Records Repository

Enclosure

Bioeffects of Selected Nonlethal Weapons$^{\text{(fn 1)}}$

This addendum to the Nonlethal Technologies—Worldwide (NGIC-1147-101-98) study addresses in summary, some of the most often asked questions of nonlethal weapons technology, the physiological responses observed in clinical settings of the biophysical coupling and susceptibility of personnel to nonlethal effects weapons. These results identify and validate some aspects of maturing nonlethal technologies that may likely be encountered or used as nonlethal effectors in the future including:

• Laser and other light phenomena.
• Radiofrequency directed energy.
• Aural bioeffects.

The study of electromagnetic fields and their influence on biological systems is increasing rapidly. Much of this work is taking place because of health concerns. For example, increased concern has arisen regarding the effects of operator exposure to the electromagnetic fields associated with short-wave diathermy devices, high power microwave ovens, radar systems, magnetic resonance imaging units, etc. In addition, much concern has arisen about extremely low frequency (60 Hz power frequency) electric and magnetic fields that originate from high-voltage transmission lines, industrial equipment, and residential appliances. Both occupational and residential long-term exposure have been the focus of epidemiological studies. The studies have suggested possible adverse effects on human health (e.g., cancer, reproduction, etc.). Laboratory research is still being pursued to identify possible mechanisms of interaction. However, other than thermal heating for microwave frequencies, there is no yet agreed-upon mechanism of action. As a consequence, our knowledge base is developed entirely with phenomenological observations.

Because of this fact, it is not possible to predict how nonthermal biological effects may differ from one exposure modality to another. It is especially difficult, because of the small database for fast pulses, to predict biological effects that might be associated with high-power pulses of extremely short duration.

There is, however, a growing perception that microwave irradiation and exposure to low frequency fields can be involved in a wide range of biological interactions. Some investigators are even beginning to describe similarities between microwave irradiation and drugs regarding their effects on biological systems. For example, some suggest that power density and specific absorption rate of microwave irradiation may be thought of as analogous to the concentration of the injection solution and the dosage of drug administration, respectively. Clearly, the effects of microwaves on brain tissue, chemistry, and functions are complex and selective. Observations of body weight and behavior revealed that rats, exposed under certain conditions to microwaves, eat and drink less, have smaller body weight as a result of nonspecific stress mediated through the central nervous system and have decreased motor activity. It has been found that exposure of the animals to one modality of radiofrequency electromagnetic energy substantially decreases aggressive behavior during exposure. However, the opposite effects of microwaves, in increasing the mobility and aggression of animals, has also been shown for a different exposure modality. Recent published data implicates microwaves as a factor related to a deficit in spatial memory function. A similar type of effect was observed with exposure to a “resonance tuned” extremely low frequency magnetic field. Thus, the data base is replete with phenomenological observations of biological systems “affected” by exposure to electromagnetic energy. (The fact that a biological system responds to an external influence does not automatically nor easily translate to the suggestion of adverse influence on health.) The objective of the present study was to identify information from this developing understanding of electromagnetic effects on animal systems that could be coupled with human biological susceptibilities. Situations where the intersection of these two domains coexist provide possibilities for use in nonlethal applications.

CLASSIFICATION/DECLASSIFICATION NOTICE

UNCLASSIFIED

Authority: Para 4-102 DOD 5200.1R

Date: DEC 13 2006

By: USAINSCOM FOIA/PA

1

Incapacitating Effect: Microwave Heating

Body heating to mimic a fever is the nature of the RF incapacitation. The objective is to provide heating in a very controlled way so that the body receives nearly uniform heating and no organs are damaged. Core temperatures approximately $41^\circ \text{C}$ are considered to be adequate. At such temperature a considerably changed demeanor will take place with the individual. Most people, under fever conditions, become much less aggressive; some people may become more irritable. The subjective sensations produced by this buildup of heat are far more unpleasant than those accompanying fever. In hyperthermia all the effector processes are strained to the utmost, whereas in fever they are not. It is also possible that microwave hyperthermia (even with only a $1^\circ \text{C}$ increase in brain temperature) may disrupt working memory, thus resulting in disorientation.

Biological Target/Normal Functions/Disease State

The temperature of warm-blooded (homeothermic) animals like the human remains practically unchanged although the surrounding temperature may vary considerably. The normal human body temperature recorded from the mouth is usually given as $37^\circ \text{C}$, with the rectal temperature one degree higher. Variation between individuals is typically between $35.8^\circ \text{C}$ and $37.8^\circ \text{C}$ orally. Variations also occur in any one individual throughout the day—a difference of $1.0^\circ \text{C}$ or even $2.0^\circ \text{C}$ occurring between the maximum in the late afternoon or early evening, and the minimum between 3 and 5 o’clock in the morning. Strenuous muscular exercise causes a temporary rise in body temperature that is proportional to the severity of the exercise; the level may go as high as $40.0^\circ \text{C}$.

2

Extreme heat stress, such that the body’s capacity for heat loss is exceeded, causes a pathological increase in the temperature of the body. The subjective sensations produced by this buildup of heat are far more unpleasant than those accompanying fever. In hyperthermia all the effector processes are strained to the utmost, whereas in fevers they are not. The limiting temperature for survival, however, is the same in both cases—a body temperature of $42^\circ \text{C}$. For brief periods, people have been known to survive temperatures as high as $43^\circ \text{C}$.

In prolonged hyperthermia, with temperatures over $40^\circ \text{C}$ to $41^\circ \text{C}$, the brain suffers severe damage that usually leads to death. Periods of hyperthermia are accompanied by cerebral edema that damage neurons, and the victim exhibits disorientation, delirium, and convulsions. This syndrome is popularly referred to as sunstroke, or heatstroke, depending on the circumstances. When the hyperthermia is prolonged, brain damage interferes with the central thermoregulatory mechanisms. In particular, sweat secretion ceases, so that the condition is further exacerbated.

Mechanism to Produce the Desired Effects

This concept builds on about 40 years of experience with the heating effects of microwaves. Numerous studies have been performed on animals to identify characteristics of importance to the understanding of energy deposition in animals. As a result of the physics, the relationship between the size of the animal and the wavelength of the radiofrequency energy is most important. In fact, the human exposure guidelines to radiofrequency radiation are designed around knowledge of the differential absorption as a function of frequency and body size. The challenge is to minimize the time to effect while causing no permanent injury to any organ or the total body and to optimize the equipment function. The orientation of the incident energy with respect to the orientation of the animal is also important.

In a study of the effect of RF radiation on body temperature in the Rhesus monkey, a frequency (225 MHz) is purposely chosen that deposits energy deep within the body of the animal. A dose rate of 10 W/kg caused the body temperature to increase to $42^\circ \text{C}$ in a short time (10-15 min). To avoid irreversible adverse effects, the exposure was terminated when a temperature of $42^\circ \text{C}$ was reached. A lower dose rate of 5 W/kg caused the temperature to increase to $41.5^\circ \text{C}$ in less than 2 hours. The reversible nature of this response was demonstrated by the rapid drop in body temperature when RF exposure was terminated before a critical temperature of $42^\circ \text{C}$ was reached. It is estimated for rats that the absorbed threshold convulsive dose lies between 22 and 35 J/g for exposure durations from less than a second to 15 minutes. For 30-minute exposure, the absorbed threshold dose for decrease in endurance is near 20 J/g, the threshold for work stoppage approximately 9 J/g, and the threshold for work perturbation ranges from 5 to 7 J/g. All of the above measures, except convulsions, are types of nonlethal incapacitation.

A rough estimate of the power required to heat a human for this technology is on the order of 10 W/kg given about 15 to 30 minutes of target activation.

3

Actual power levels depend on climatic factors, clothing, and other considerations that affect the heat loss from the individual concerned. A method for expressing dose rate in terms of body surface area (i.e., watts per square meter) rather than body mass (i.e., watts per kilogram) would permit a more reliable prediction of thermal effects across species. However, there are large uncertainties in the ability to extrapolate thermoregulatory effects in laboratory animals to those in human beings.

This technology is an adaptation of technology which has been around for many years. It is well known that microwaves can be used to heat objects. Not only is microwave technology used to cook foods, but it is also used as a directed source of heating in many industrial applications. It was even the subject of the “Pound Proposal” a few years ago in which the idea was to provide residential heating to people, not living space. Because of the apparently safe nature of body heating using microwave techniques, a variety of innovative uses of EM energy for human applications are being explored. The nonlethal application would embody a highly sophisticated microwave assembly that can be used to project microwaves in order to provide a controlled heating of persons. This controlled heating will raise the core temperature of the individuals to a predetermined level to mimic a high fever with the intent of gaining a psychological/capability edge on the enemy, while not inflicting deadly force. The concept of heating is straightforward; the challenge is to identify and produce the correct mix of frequencies and power levels needed to do the remote heating while not injuring specific organs in the individuals illuminated by the beam.

A variety of factors contribute to the attractiveness of this nonlethal technology. First, it is based on a well-known effect, heating. Every human is subject to the effects of heating; therefore, it would have a predictability rating of 100%. The time to onset can probably be engineered to between 15 and 30 minutes; however, timing is the subject of additional research to maximize heating while minimizing adverse effects of localized heating. The onset can be slow enough and/or of such frequency to be unrecognized by the person(s) being irradiated. Safety to innocents could be enhanced by the application and additional development of advanced sensor technologies. Incapacitation time could be extended to almost any desired period consistent with safety. (Given suitable R&D, temperature or other vital signs could be monitored remotely, and temperature could be maintained at a minimum effective point).

Time to Onset

The time to onset is a function of the power level being used. Carefully monitored uniform heating could probably take place in between 15 and 30 minutes. Time to onset could be reduced but with increased risk of adverse effects. Minimum time is dependent on the power level of the equipment and the efficiency of the aiming device.

Duration of Effect

Assuming that the heating is done carefully, reversal of elevated body temperature would begin as soon as the source of heat is removed.

Tunability

This concept is tunable in that any rate of heating, up to the maximum capacity of the source, may be obtained. Thus it is suitable for use in a gradual force or “rheostatic” approach. If the situation allows, and the source is sufficiently powerful, there is the possibility to use this technology in a lethal mode as well. Prolonged body temperature above $43^\circ \text{C}$ is almost certain to result in permanent damage to the brain and death.

Distribution of Human Sensitivities to Desired Effects

No reason has been identified to suggest that anyone would be immune to this technology. Individuals with compromised thermoregulatory mechanisms would be susceptible with a lower incident energy density. This would include people with organic damage to the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that integrates the autonomic mechanisms which control heat loss as well as people with compromised somatic features of heat loss (e.g., respiration, water balance, etc.).

The technologies needed for the thermal technology concept are relatively well developed because of the known biophysical mechanism, the universal susceptibility of humans to the mechanism of heating, and because of a well developed technology base for the production of radiofrequency radiation. Because the human body is inhomogeneous, certain organs are, by virtue of their size and geometry, more easily coupled with one radiofrequency wavelength than another. Therefore, to avoid permanent damage to the suspect or to innocent bystanders, it may be necessary to vary the frequency to avoid localized heating and consequent damage to any organ. Additionally, it will be necessary to avoid the conditions thought to be associated with the induction of cataracts. Thus, while the technology of microwave heating in general is mature, adaptation as a nonlethal technology will require sophisticated biophysical calculations to identify the proper regimen of microwave frequencies and intensities; it will also be necessary to optimize existing hardware to meet the biophysical requirements.

Possible Influence on Subject(s)

If the technology functions approximately as envisioned, the targeted individual could be incapacitated within 15 to 30 minutes. Because this technology is focused on a relatively slow onset, it should only be used in situations where speed is not important. The very uncomfortable nature of a high body temperature may be useful in negotiations or possibly for controlling crowds. It would be equally useful on single persons or crowds. Evidence also indicates a disruption of working memory, thus disorientation may occur because of an inability to consolidate memory of the recent (minutes) past.

Technological Status of Generator/Aiming Device

4

Equipment needed to explore this concept in the laboratory is available today. Design and construction of the RF/microwave generator will depend on the constraints posed by the calculations, potential generation devices, and energy-directing structures. A variety of options exist for both of these equipment needs. The use of advanced frequency and modulation-agile RF generation and amplification circuitry will be required to assess fully the frequency/power/time envelope of RF heating profiles required. Although much equipment is commercially available, it is likely that custom hardware and software will be necessary because available equipment has not been designed with the need for frequency/intensity variability, which will probably be needed for safety purposes. In addition, the design of antennas and other energy-directing structures will almost certainly involve unique configurations. Since this technology utilizes radiofrequency energy, it can be defeated by the use of shielding provided by conductive barriers like metal or metal screen.

Incapacitating Effect: Microwave Hearing

Microwave hearing is a phenomenon, described by human observers, as, the sensations of buzzing, ticking, hissing, or knocking sounds that originate within or immediately behind the head. There is no sound propagating through the air like normal sound. This technology in its crudest form could be used to distract individuals; if refined, it could also be used to communicate with hostages or hostage takers directly by Morse code or other message systems, possibly even by voice communication.

Biological Target/Normal Functions/Disease State

This technology makes use of a phenomenon first described in the literature over 30 years ago. Different types of sounds were heard depending on the particulars of the pulse characteristics. Various experiments were performed on humans and laboratory animals exploring the origin of this phenomenon. At this time, virtually all investigators who have studied the phenomenon now accept thermoelastic expansion of the brain, the pressure wave of which is received and processed by the cochlear microphonic system, to be the mechanism of acoustic perception of short pulses of RF energy. One study (in 1975) using human volunteers, identified the threshold energy of microwave-auditory responses in humans as a function of pulse width for 2450 MHz radiofrequency energy. It is also found that about $40\ \mu \text{J}/\text{cm}^2$ incident energy density per pulse was required.

Mechanism to Produce the Desired Effects

After the phenomenon was discovered, several mechanisms were suggested to explain the hearing of pulsed RF fields. Thermoelastic expansion within the brain in response to RF pulses was first studied and demonstrated in inert materials and was proposed as the mechanism of hearing of pulsed RF fields. A pressure wave is generated in most solid and liquid materials by a pulse of RF energy—a pressure wave that is several orders of magnitude larger in amplitude than that resulting from radiation pressure or from electrostrictive forces. The characteristics of the field-induced cochlear microphonic in guinea pigs and cats, the relationship of pulse duration and threshold, physical measurements in water and in tissue-simulating materials, as well as numerous theoretical calculations—all point to thermoelastic expansion as the mechanism of the hearing phenomenon.

Scientists have determined the threshold energy level for human observers exposed to pulsed 2450-MHz fields (0.5- to 32-micron pulse widths). They found that, regardless of the peak of the power density and the pulse width, the per-pulse threshold for a normal subject is near $20\ \text{mJ}/\text{kg}$. The average elevation of brain temperature associated with a just-perceptible pulse was estimated to be about $5 \times 10^{-6}{}^\circ \text{C}$.

Time to Onset

The physical nature of this thermoelastic expansion dictates that the sounds are heard as the individual pulses are absorbed. Thus, the effect is immediate (within milliseconds). Humans have been exposed to RF energy that resulted in the production of sounds.

Duration of Effect

Microwave hearing lasts only as long as the exposure. There is no residual effect after cessation of RF energy.

Tunability

The phenomenon is tunable in that the characteristic sounds and intensities of those sounds depend on the characteristics of the RF energy as delivered. Because the frequency of the sound heard is dependent on the pulse characteristics of the RF energy, it seems possible that this technology could be developed to the point where words could be transmitted to be heard like the spoken word, except that it could only be heard within a person’s head. In one experiment, communication of the words from one to ten using “speech modulated” microwave energy was successfully demonstrated. Microphones next to the person experiencing the voice could not pick up the sound. Additional development of this would open up a wide range of possibilities.

Distribution of Human Sensitivities to Desired Effects

Because the phenomenon acts directly on cochlear processes, the thermoelastic pressure waves produce sounds of varying frequency. Many of the tests run to evaluate the phenomenon produced sounds in the 5 kHz range and higher. Because humans are known to experience a wide range of hearing loss due to cochlear damage, it is possible that some people can hear RF induced sounds that others with high frequency hearing loss cannot. Thus, there is a likely range of sensitivity, primarily based on the type of pulse and the condition of the cochlea. Bilateral destruction of the cochlea has been demonstrated to abolish all RF-induced auditory stimuli.

Recovery/Safety

Humans have been subjected to this phenomenon for many years. The energy deposition required to produce this effect is so small that it is not considered hazardous experimentation when investigating responses at the just-perceptible levels.

7

Possible Influence on Subject(s)

Application of the microwave hearing technology could facilitate a private message transmission. It may be useful to provide a disruptive condition to a person not aware of the technology. Not only might it be disruptive to the sense of hearing, it could be psychologically devastating if one suddenly heard “voices within one’s head.”

Technological Status of Generator/Aiming Device

This technology requires no extrapolation to estimate its usefulness. Microwave energy can be applied at a distance, and the appropriate technology can be adapted from existing radar units. Aiming devices likewise are available but for special circumstances which require extreme specificity, there may be a need for additional development. Extreme directional specificity would be required to transmit a message to a single hostage surrounded by his captors. Signals can be transmitted long distances (hundreds of meters) using current technology. Longer distances and more sophisticated signal types will require more bulky equipment, but it seems possible to transmit some type of signals at closer ranges using man-portable equipment.

Range

The effective range could be hundreds of meters.

Incapacitating Effect: Disruption of Neural Control

The nature of the incapacitation is a rhythmic-activity synchronization of brain neurons that disrupts normal cortical control of the corticospinal and corticobulbar pathways thus disrupts normal functioning of the spinal motor neurons which control muscle contraction and body movements. Persons suffering from this condition lose voluntary control of their body. This synchronization may be accompanied by a sudden loss of consciousness and intense muscle spasms.

Biological Target/Normal Functions/Disease State

The normal function of the brain is to control all forms of behavior, voluntary control of body, and the homeostatic parameters of the organism. In normal conditions, all the brain structures, neuron populations, networks, and single units function with specific rhythmic activity depending on the incoming sensory information, information from mnemonic structures, and signals from visceral organs. Each single neuron provides specific processing of information it receives and forms a specific pattern of impulse firing as outgoing information. Synchronization of neuron activity is a natural mechanism of the brain function that uses such controlling processes as motivation, attention and memory (experience) in order to organize behavior. For example, motivational processes are considered as activating ascending signals that synchronize the neuron activity of specific brain structures and neuron networks; this activation/synchronization in turn activates specific forms of behavior such as sexual, aggressive, ingestive activities.

8

In normal functioning the degree of neuronal synchronization is highly controlled. From experiments that record the neuronal activity in different brain areas simultaneously in animals, it is known that correlation of spike activity between neurons (measured by the correlation level of synchronization) changes depending on the stage of behavior, motivation, attention, or activation of the memory processes. However, under some conditions, such as physical stress, heat shock, or strong emotional stress, the level of synchronization may become higher, involving nonspecific large populations of brain neurons and the synchronization may become uncontrollable.

Depending on at which frequency the synchronization rhythm occurs and how many neurons are involved, it may produce different physical effects; muscle weakness, involuntary muscle contractions, loss of consciousness, or intense (tonic) muscle spasms. The higher level of synchronization takes place in persons affected with epilepsy when they experience periodic seizures since they have a pathologic source (e.g., from injury to the brain) of rhythmic synchronization. Because the neurophysiological mechanisms of epileptiform synchronization are better documented, this incapacitating technology is described in terms of epileptogenesis.

The neurophysiological mechanisms active in epileptogenesis involve changes in membrane conductances and neurotransmitter alterations as they affect neuronal interaction. In the process of epileptogenesis, either some neurons are discharging too easily because of alterations in membrane conductances or there is a failure of inhibitory neurotransmission. The actual discharges have been recognized to result from a neuronal depolarization shift with electrical synchrony in cell populations related in part to changes in membrane conductances. The ionic basis and biochemical substrate of this activation have been areas of considerable study but still leave many questions unanswered. What are the basic cellular properties, present in normal cells and tissue, that could contribute to the generation of abnormal activity? What parts of the systems are low threshold and function as trigger elements?

One of the current hypotheses is involved with microcircuitry, particularly local synaptic interactions in neocortical and limbic system structures. In the hippocampus, the role of the trigger element has been long attributed to the CA3 pyramidal cells—a hypothesis based on the fact that spontaneous synchronous burst discharge can be established in CA3 neurons. Some studies describe an intrinsically bursting cell type in the neocortex that plays a role similar to that of CA3 cells in the hippocampus and that of deep cells in the pyriform cortex. The intrinsic nature of these cells appears to be an important contributor to the establishment of synchronized bursting in these regions. Another apparent requirement in such a population is for a certain degree of synaptic interaction among neurons, such that discharge of even one cell enlists the activity of its neighbors. Given the presence of these bursting cells and the occurrence of excitatory interactions among them in normal tissue, it may actually be the morphologic substrate for epileptiform discharges.

Another hypothesis has focused particularly on the role of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Various factors regulate the efficacy of NMDA receptors: their voltage-dependent blockade by magnesium and modulation by glycine and polyamines. For example, in the low magnesium model, spontaneous synchronous burst discharge in hippocampal pyramidal cell populations is sensitive to NMDA antagonists. That finding suggests that it is the opening of NMDA channels, by relieving the magnesium blockade, that facilitates epileptiform activity.

Significant attention in the literature is also being given to gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) receptors for the potential role in control of excitability. Changes in GABA inhibitory efficacy can lead to important effects on the excitability of the system. GABAergic inhibitory post-synaptic potentials (IPSPs) have been shown to be quite labile in response to repetitive activation of cortical cell populations, as may occur during epileptiform discharge. Scientists have shown that even a small percentage change in GABA inhibition can have profound effects on neocortical epileptogenesis. These changes in GABAergic inhibition may be the key to an explanation of how repetitive discharge patterns give rise to ictal discharge. Further, there appears to be a significant increase in excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) frequency prior to seizure initiation an observation that is consistent with loss of IPSP efficacy prior to ictal onset.

The above hypotheses describe different mechanisms of epileptogenesis, but it is quite possible that all of these mechanisms take place, and they reflect large variety of types of epileptic seizures. The common principle of the mechanisms proposed is the change of membrane properties (i.e., conductance, permeability etc.) of certain neurons which results in depolarization and burst discharging. Some factors (e.g., trauma) can affect these specific neurons and initiate synchrony for neurons that control internal communication and communication with various muscle systems not associated with vital functions (i.e., heart beating, breathing). High strength pulsed electric fields could also be such a factor.

Mechanism to Reproduce the Desired Effects

Application of electromagnetic pulses is also a conceptual nonlethal technology that uses electromagnetic energy to induce neural synchrony and disruption of voluntary muscle control. The effectiveness of this concept has not been demonstrated. However, from past work in evaluating the potential for electromagnetic pulse generators to affect humans, it is estimated that sufficiently strong